Ok, so it may not actually be possible. 

I’ve spent a lot of time in the editor’s chair and if Murphy is going to find His way into your project, it will most likely happen here.  However, if you have done your planning and have shot with the edit in mind, you will have a much better time in this phase of the project and it will go much more smoothly.  That said, if you haven’t done much editing in the past, be prepared for it to take you a lot longer than you think.

The consumer industry has produced a lot of tools for the editor – edit decks, audio and video mixers, PC and Apple specialty software including animation, special effects, title programs, etc. etc. etc.  None of it, however, can make up for ignoring or not knowing some of the basic practices discussed in the earlier chapters.  Someone once said it would be like trying to put lipstick on a pig.  So, for the purpose of this chapter, we’re going to assume that you have captured the footage you want and done the appropriate planning so that you have the right raw materials to finish your project. 

For the most part, it doesn’t matter what type of tools you’re going to use to edit your project, the principles remain the same.  At its most fundamental level, editing is taking a source (or multiple sources), extracting and placing them in the order that you want.  How much you leave “on the cutting room floor” depends on how much footage you shot and how much you actually like the material you shot once you get into the edit.  When I was editing 30 second commercials, it was not uncommon to have 30 minutes or more of raw footage to work with.  In this case, the Producer needs each second of that 30 to be perfect and has shot many “takes” to ensure this.  If you’re doing a project for your family, you probably won’t be as picky and may end up using a lot more of the raw footage that you have shot.

There are two types of editing:  Linear and Non-linear.  The two terms are actually loosing a lot of their meaning now that most consumer editing is being done on computers and doesn’t require the linear approach.

But, as a quick introduction, linear editing is done when using two Video Tape Recorders (VTR), one source and one record.  You fast forward or rewind your source VTR to the appropriate spot on the tape, then record the portion you want onto your Record VCR.  The recorded master is editing in a “linear” fashion and there is no way to go back and change a scene in the middle without re-editing everything after that scene. Odds are, as a consumer, you will never have to perform linear editing and be very very grateful for that!

Non-linear editing is typically done using a computer with all of the source material digitized (digitally recorded to hard disk).  Instant access to any clip that is desired, and the ability to change any part of the edited timeline gives non-linear editing its name. 

Regardless of the method of putting cuts and scenes together, the principles remain the same.  Up until the late 90s, non linear editing systems (NLE) were only available to post production facilities that could afford $50,000 – $250,000 or more for a good system (and bill it out at between $185 and $400 an hour or more), and even then the output quality wasn’t considered good enough for broadcast television or film.  The first Avid system that I worked on in 1993 cost the university around $50,000 dollars-it had only 9GB of storage. 

In those days, NLEs were highly specialized computers with proprietary video hardware which were designed specifically for editing film and video in a digital format from a hard disk drive.  Professional post production facilities would use non-linear editing systems for “off line” editing.  Off line editing is the process of creating a reference of the edited program from the captured video.  When the raw footage is captured (or digitized) onto the hard drive of a non-linear editing system all of the timecode information from the tape or tapes is captured as well.  The footage is then edited into a sequence.  This technique would allow editors to create all of the edits that were desired and see what the finished product would look like.   Editing in this manner provides the editor with much more flexibility.  Multiple sequences could be created and the best one chosen.  The NLE would then export the timecode information (each of the in and out points) for each edit, to what is called an “Edit Decision List” or EDL.  These EDLs can then be used to edit the original source footage using a traditional linear system to finish the project.  

By the early 2000s, general purpose PCs were becoming fast enough to process full motion video without the proprietary hardware.  Moreover, the techniques for capturing, compressing and preserving video on a hard drive using the least amount of disk necessary while maintaining close the original quality were continually advancing (and continue today).

Complete PC or Apple-based editing systems have now become economical for the consumer.  In fact, you can’t buy an Apple computer today without iMovie which is a fairly simple, yet robust editing package.  The NLE below is a Windows-based system from Matrox which provides High Definition Editing. Note the proprietary hardware which must be installed in he PC in order to support the higher quality video format.

From digitizing to final output on DVD, complete systems can be purchased for between 1000 and 5000 dollars (or more) depending on what you want to accomplish.  Some things to consider for your editing system:

1. Specific or general purpose editing platform.  Will you only edit on the machine or will you do other, general purpose computing tasks like spreadsheet and productivity?
2. Portability.  Do you want to “Edit on the go?”  If so, you might consider a laptop solution. Just be sure that your laptop is designed to run video applications and has enough memory and graphics horsepower.
3. Hardware Expansion. Computers are great tools which are flexible.  You can add memory, expansion cards, hard drives and other peripherals later on, but you should begin with the end in mind.  Perhaps you’ll want to go for a bigger tower with more room to put things in later.
4. Turnkey versus build your own.  There are many companies out there who will build you a turn-key, completely tested editing system.  There are many factors that go into putting together a system that will work for you.  Hard drive speed, memory, motherboard configuration, peripherals, software installation are among the many considerations when putting a system together.  If you don’t want to hassle with the entire configuration, you may want to find a company that provides you with a tested system built to your specs.
5. Specialty hardware versus general-purpose CPU editing.  The processors shipped today are extremely fast and can handle a wide variety of video processing tasks.  However, as you do more complex project that require multi-track video, compositing, animation and other effects, you might consider specific hardware acceleration solutions.  Using just the CPU will be a less expensive approach to purchasing additional add-on hardware, but it may ultimately limit what you’re able to accomplish in the edit.
6. Additional software programs – compositing programs like Adobe AfterFX, animation programs like Maya, 3D Studio or Lightwave, Titling software like Boris, and DVD Authoring software like Ulead or Sonic will enhance your project.  Don’t look to a single program to do it all – you’ll need to do some research on the right programs to fit your need and budget.  You might also research online editing solutions.  Several companies now provide editing right through your Web browser.
7. Monitors – VGA, Flat Panel, HDTV Reference TV set.  It is important to see what your project will look like on the final “viewer” whether it’s a TV or a PC monitor.  Many software editing programs only allow you to see the material you’re editing on the PC screen, but don’t provide a way to output it to an NTSC or HDTV monitor.  Many times you may find the quality acceptable on the “mini-screen” provided to edit, but the finished product doesn’t look all that great once you’ve burned it to a DVD and watch it on a TV.
8. Sound monitor – speakers.  For projects destined for the Web, most computer speakers will work fine to monitor audio; however, if you’re planning on creating a project with 5.1 surround and burning to a high-definition DVD, you’ll need to monitor your edit session with an appropriate speaker setup.
9. Peripherals – scanner, digital camera, media readers, DVD/CD writer, edit controllers, etc.  In other words, what additional equipment will you need to hook up to your PC to support the final creation of your project.

I use Adobe Premiere now for all of my editing although I'm considering purchasing Apple's Final Cut Pro since I have switched to Apple computers inside my home now. This is what the Premiere interface looks like:

You can layout the interface any way that you like. I'ive laid mine out with my source bin, which contains all of the source clips, in the upper left hand corner. My source and program monitors in the upper right, and my timeline in the lower third.

Basic Editing Techniques

Providing instruction on how to be a good editor is a bit like asking an artist to teach you how to be a painter.  They can teach you how to paint by giving you an introduction to the tools (brushes, canvas types, color mixing, etc.) and then probably give you some insights into light, shadow, stroke and other techniques; at the end of the day, however, the quality of your painting comes down to your own artistic ability and creativity and the content that you ultimately produce. 

This is by far and away my own personal favorite part of production.  Editing is a unique concept to film making – all other aspects of production originate from some other media whether it be photography, art, sound recording, etc. where editing originated specifically from making films. 

Putting a scene together

The dictionary defines a “Scene” as follows:

Scene:
a. A subdivision of an act in a dramatic presentation in which the setting is fixed and the time continuous.
b. A shot or series of shots in a movie constituting a unit of continuous related action.

We’ll focus on the scene as a basic element to creating a finished project.  A scene is essentially a series of one our more shots that cover the action of a particular location and a continuous sequence of time.  Your project may only have a single scene.  If you’re filming your daughter at the park, you’re essentially going to have a single scene once you’ve edited the footage.  If you were add shots of her at home later talking about how fun it was to be at the park, that would be a new scene. 

Establish the Scene

When starting a new scene, it is important to orient the viewer on the location.   If you’ve done your production work correctly, you should have some sort of establishing shot.  In our park example above, this might be a Extreme Long Shot of the park showing a grass field, swings and slides and the sounds of happy children running around in the distance.  You can use more than one shot to establish a location and they don’t have to be long shots.  A quick montage with several shots that mix the coverage from Long shots to close up can be an effective and fun way to establish a scene’s location.

Establishing shots are also great places to drop in Title effects.  You can instantly make a “day at the park” more professional looking by showing a 6-8 second establishing shot with a title that dissolves in showing the event, place location and date.

Practice:  The next time you’re watching an episode of your favorite show on TV, try to notice when the scene changes and the type of establishing shot used when the scene changes. Establishing shots are not always Extreme Long Shots..

“Cutting” your video

Individual shots that make up the scene are referred to as “cuts” even though you may use different transition techniques between them which we’ll cover later on.  A cut is an instantaneous change from one shot to another.  Easily 90% of all transitions between shots in today’s TV shows and movies are cuts.  The name has stuck from the early days of physically cutting and splicing film.  Interestingly, a cut mimics exactly how our eyes work as we look around.  The act of blinking clears the last image from our eyes as we focus on something new. 

For example, the shot above "cuts" from a Long Shot to a Medium, over the shoulder shot.

Each cut should provide a piece of the storyline of the scene and advance the story in some way.  As we’ve discussed earlier, if you have shot your footage with the edit in mind, you will find that you already have some logical places to make cuts. 

Cuts can do several things for you.  Their most basic purpose is to take out unwanted footage and allow you to show what you consider to be the best material to tell the story.  However, cuts can do a lot more.  Cuts allow you to focus your viewer’s attention where you want it.  They also help establish a rhythm or pace to the scene – fast cuts for high urgency, fast action for example.  In the end, cuts are used to evoke an emotional response from the viewer.  In the case of our simple park example, we want to convey the joy and excitement that our child felt while playing outside. 

Here are some general guidelines when cutting your footage:

1. Have a good reason to make a cut.  Always use a cut to enhance the scene and move the story along.  The reason may be to cut out unwanted footage (move through the story more efficiently).  It may be to fit the pace of a piece of music and quick cuts are needed to match up to the beat.  Or you may want the viewer to focus on a particular part of the action and use a cut to change the angle to a close up.
2. Try to make the cut “invisible.”  That is, don’t distract the viewer with the cut.  If something doesn’t feel right to you when you’re reviewing a cut, it won’t feel right to your viewer.  One technique to hide a cut is to cut on the motion and “match action.”  For example, you’re shooting a man at a park who is about to sit down.  You’re going to move in for the close up.  Cut as he begins his motion to sit down and start the close up with him completing the action.  This is hard to do when you’re covering a continuous event with only a single camera and no ability to shoot the same action from more than one angle, but if you’re creating a narrative and have several shots of the same action, you can use this technique. 
3. Cuts should “further the action” – the series of cuts that make up a scene should communicate the story in an efficient way.  If the subject of your shot leaves the frame – don’t linger on an empty frame!  Make the cut quickly to next shot that furthers your action.  Don’t allow the viewer to mentally leave your scene.
4. Avoid Jump cuts without a good reason.  We discussed jump cuts briefly in a previous section in the context of crossing the action axis.  I’m not going to say don’t ever use them because it may be your intention to affect the viewer in a desired way by using one.

Enhancing the Cut

There are actually several types of cuts that an editor may perform.  Each has a unique purpose.  One type is the asynchronous edit, which is more commonly referred to as a split edit.  With a split edit the audio or video independently precedes its counterpart at the cut.  This type of edit is very common in news video packages where you see the video image of someone being interviewed while the reporter is speaking, and then the audio of that person is heard when the reporter concludes their introduction. 

Another place you see split edits is during conversations between two people.  You see one individual speaking, and then cut to an image of the person they're speaking to, but the dialogue continues.  This is a great way to keep continuity and make the cuts invisible.  Your scene will end up looking very choppy if you are always cutting to the person who is speaking right when they begin speaking.

Other types of edits

There are many other types of transitions that can occur between shots.  What differentiates the other transitions from a cut is that they happen over time.  A cut happens in 1/30th of a second – one frame you’re on a shot, and the very next frame, you’re on another.   With anything other than a cut, a series of frames is required to complete the transition and because this is the case, the transition itself draws attention to itself and will communicate something to the viewer.
 
Here is a quick list of common transitions and what they can communicate

Fade - A fade is a transition to or from “black” indicating that a scene is starting or ending.  The fade has its roots in the theater where an act of a play started when the lights “came up” and ended when the lights went out.  A fade to black followed by an immediate fade up to the new scene suggests that time has past between the two scenes.

Dissolve – A dissolve is the mixing of video from one shot to the next almost as if one is fading out as the other is fading up.  The use of the dissolve tends to suggest a general slowing of the action.  It can also indicate the passage of time.  Dissolves can be effective during video montages set to music where the music’s tempo is slower. 

Using the same two clips from above, here is what a dissolve looks like mid way through:

Wipe – A wipe essentially reveals the next shot through the use of moving a line or shape across the screen.  The most common wipes are vertical or horizontal line transitions, but systems today can create wipes out of just about any shape.  I’m not a fan of the wipe in general although I do believe there are very appropriate times to use them.  George Lucas makes extensive use of wipes throughout the Star Wars films.  One of the most famous is the “clock” wipe which sweeps a radius “hand” of a clock around the screen in a clockwise fashion to reveal the next shot.  This use of a wipe suggested the passage of time.

Here is the same scene above with a Clock Wipe between cuts:

2D Digital Video Effects (DVE) – All of the previous transitions occur between frames of video that are the same size.  With a DVE transition, the complete incoming or outgoing video frames of the transition are resized and manipulated in some way using variables such as position, scale, rotation, and other distortion controls.   It used to require very sophisticated and expensive equipment to perform DVE moves, but all non-linear editing systems have 2D DVE moves built in:

3D Digital Video Effects – These types of effects require a more sophisticated editing system that can map the video from a cut into an object in 3D space.  In the example image, the video was mapped onto a flying sphere which gets smaller and smaller as it flies out of frame.  

There are even more sophisticated types of transitions that I call “organic” transitions which utilize advanced compositing techniques, luminance or chrominance values within the video, or other means to transition from one shot to the next.  Experiment with the various transitions on your editing platform and get to know what the end results look like.  If you ever find yourself making a Sci-Fi movie, a music video, or other production where you need a lot of unique visual elements, some of these transitions may come in handy.

Action Axis part dux

In the chapter on production, we discussed the Action Axis and why it’s a good idea to stay on the same side of it during a scene.  In the edit session, you’ll find out quickly if you followed this rule or not.  As a quick review, the action axis defines the general line upon which the action is taking place throughout a scene.  If the scene was of two people talking, the action axis would essentially be their eye line.    

When editing this scene, it is important to maintain the same “left right” relationship between them.  Notice in the two screen shots above the actors face the same way in both shots even though the angle of coverage changes. Braden's action is left to right while Sabrina's is right to left. Had I moved around and shot them on the other side of the line, their heads would appear to be facing a different direction on the edit and you, as a viewer, would be disoriented.

What do you do if you find yourself in a situation where the line has been crossed and your scene “feels” wrong?  Here are some things to try:

1. Use a cutaway in between the two shots where the line is crossed.  I discuss cutaways a little further on, but the line is effectively reset once you return from the cutaway.  You can also use a cut in.  However, the cutaway or cut in may end up being more distracting than the jump cut itself.
2. Use a digital effect to mirror the second shot to match the first.  I have used this technique in the past.  Your editing software would need to support this video effect which creates a “mirror image” of a shot.  This has the immediate effect of reversing the direction of the action axis.  Be careful with this technique though as any writing on logos and signs will be reversed.
3. Try using a dissolve as a transition between the two shots that cross the line.  This technique can be hit and miss, but it may make the transition less awkward. 

Cutaway and Cut in

I briefly touched on these techniques in the last section. Cutaways and cut ins are great techniques that can enhance your edit. Cut ins are exactly that - a cut that takes you close "in" to some action which enhances the scene. A cut in may be an extreme close up on an a particular object that someone is holding or about to grab; it may be a close up of hands gesturing as someone is talking; it may be an extreme close up on the eyes of a gunfighter just before he goes for his pistol.

A cutaway is a cut which takes us "away" from the current scene to a related shot. In the classic scene of our hero trying to rescue his girl from being tied up on railroad tracks, the cutaway comes when we cut to a close up of the wheels of the train as it barrels down the track. The cutaway can give the viewer a "sneak preview" of something that is to come. It can also let the viewer know of something that is going on at the same time as what is happening in our current scene, but in a different location.

Color Correction

I discussed color balance in a previous section when discussion acquisition of footage. Sometimes, and perhaps more often than not, the color balance of your shot just doesn't turn out the way you want it to. Perhaps you shot different cuts on different days resulting in different lighting conditions and need to match the two. Perhaps you want to change the mood of the scene by changing the color temperature, or perhaps you just want your colors to look more saturated. If this is the case, you will need to go through a color correction step after you have edited your video.

For an effects shot that I put together I had to use color balance to match the foreground and background composite, and then the resulting composited shot to match the rest of the shots:

Original Shot	Color Corrected with Green Screen Actors

You can read more about how I created this shot in the next section.

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